---
Title: 11 Advanced Topics
Prev: Generic Programming
Next: Standard Library
---

## 11. Advanced Topics

### 11.1 Dynamic Code Evaluation

The `eval` operator executes code dynamically at runtime by parsing and executing a TokenString.

**Syntax**: `{ code } eval`

**Examples**:
```
// Evaluate simple expression
"2 3 +" eval            // Pushes 5

// Build and execute code
"(Multiplyable -- Multiplyable) { dup * } ::square fn" eval
5 square                // 25

// Dynamic dispatch
operation_name " get" concat eval
```

**Use Cases**:
- Building code at runtime
- Dynamic dispatch based on runtime values
- Implementing interpreters or REPLs
- Meta-programming

**Warnings**:
- Eval introduces runtime overhead (parsing)
- Type safety is reduced (types checked at eval time, not compile time)
- Security risk if evaluating untrusted code
- Use sparingly and prefer static alternatives when possible

### 11.2 Identifier Literals

Identifier literals use the `::` prefix to push an identifier as a value rather than executing it.

**Syntax**: `::name`

**Context-Dependent Rules**:

**In function bodies and eval**: `::` is required for identifier literals
```
::Point                 // Pushes identifier "Point"
::Addable              // Pushes identifier "Addable"
```

**In trait definitions**: `::` is not allowed (identifiers are method names)
```
{
    (Self -- ) draw:    // "draw:" is a method name, not a literal
} ::Drawable trait
```

**In trait implementations**: `::` is not allowed (identifiers are method names)
```
::Drawable {
    (Self -- ) { ... } draw:  // "draw:" is a method name
} ::Rectangle impl
```

**Use Cases**:
- Defining structs: `(T T --) { x: y: } ::Point<T> struct`
- Defining traits: `{ ... } ::Drawable trait`
- Field access: `point ::x get`
- Dynamic trait operations
- Meta-programming

### 11.3 Testing and Assertions

The `assert` operator provides inline testing and verification.

**Syntax**: `{ expression } { condition } assert`

The assert operator evaluates the expression block, then evaluates the condition block. If the condition returns false (or a falsy value), the program halts with an assertion failure.

**Examples**:
```
// Simple assertion
{ 2 3 + } { 5 == } assert

// Testing a function
{ 5 square } { 25 == } assert

// Multiple assertions
{ 10 3 divmod } { 3 == swap 1 == and } assert

// Assertion with message (implementation-specific)
{ 2 3 + } { 5 == } "Addition should work" assert
```

**Use Cases**:
- Unit testing
- Invariant checking
- Contract programming
- Debugging

**Testing Framework (Future)**: A more comprehensive testing framework with `test` and `test_error` operators is planned for future versions. See [Appendix F](./memory_management.html) for details.

### 11.4 Reflection

Reflection operators provide runtime type and trait information for debugging and metaprogramming.

**type_of Operator**

**Syntax**: `value type_of`  
**Signature**: `(Self -- Identifier)`

Returns the type of a value as an identifier literal.

**Examples**:
```
42 type_of              // Pushes ::i64
"hello" type_of         // Pushes ::String
3.14 type_of            // Pushes ::f64

// Use with conditionals
value type_of ::i64 ==
    { "It's an integer" print }
    { "It's not an integer" print }
if
```

**implements Operator**

**Syntax**: `value ::TraitName implements`  
**Signature**: `(Self Identifier -- bool)`

Checks if a value's type implements a specific trait.

**Examples**:
```
42 ::Addable implements         // => true
42 ::Drawable implements        // => false

"hello" ::String implements     // => true
[1 2 3] ::Iterable implements   // => true

// Use with conditionals
value ::Serializable implements
    { value serialize }
    { "Cannot serialize" print }
if
```

**Use Cases**:
- Runtime type checking
- Debugging and introspection
- Dynamic dispatch based on traits
- Building generic utilities
- Error messages with type information

**Examples**:
```
// Generic print function with type info
(Self -- ) {
    dup type_of to_str "Type: " swap concat print
    dup ::Stringifiable implements
        { to_str print }
        { drop "Cannot print this type" print }
    if
} ::debug_print fn

// Trait-based dispatch
(Self -- ) {
    dup ::Drawable implements
        { draw }
        { drop "Not drawable" print }
    if
} ::try_draw fn
```

### 11.5 Standard Library

The standard library provides I/O, string operations, type conversions, and utility functions. All standard library functions are automatically in scope (no imports needed in current version).

**I/O Operations**:
```
"Hello" print           // Print string to stdout
"Enter name: " input    // Read line from stdin
"file.txt" read         // Read file contents as string
"data" "file.txt" write // Write string to file
```

**String Operations**:
```
"hello" " world" concat     // Concatenate strings
"hello" length              // Get string length
"hello" 1 3 substr          // Extract substring
"a,b,c" "," split           // Split by delimiter
["a" "b"] "," join          // Join with delimiter
"hello world" "world" "Stack" replace  // Replace substring
"  hello  " trim            // Remove whitespace
"hello world" "world" find  // Find substring position
"hello" "hel" starts_with   // Check prefix
"hello" "llo" ends_with     // Check suffix
"x=%d, y=%d" [5 10] format  // Format string with values
```

**Type Conversion**:
```
42 to_f64               // Convert i32 to f64
3.14 to_i32             // Convert f64 to i32 (truncates)
"123" parse             // Parse string to inferred type
42 to_str               // Convert to string
```

**Array Operations**:
- Element access: `at`, `slice`
- Information: `length`, `shape`
- Combinators: `map`, `filter`, `reduce`, `each`, `foldl`, `foldr`
- Utilities: `zip`, `enumerate`, `sum`, `mean`
- Manipulation: `concat`, `reverse`, `transpose`, `window`

> **Complete Reference**: See [Appendix A](./standard_library.html) for the full standard library reference with all functions, signatures, and examples.

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